Empedocles

Born around 494 B.C., Empedocles was a Greek Pre-Socratic philosopher, whose contributions among many, include the theory of the four classical elements, earth, air, wind, fire (On Nature), which will be grouped as roots. He would argue that there are two forces which would either mix or separate them, Love and Strife. His works however, will implicate various dieties, whom authors would equate with each element/root.

Empedocles died around 434 B.C. His works have influenced thoughts on cosmogenesis, medicine, ontology, epistemology and much more.

1. Which deity represents each element?
2. What might have been Empedocles' lasting impact on medicine?

-O. James

© Orin James 2020

Hippocrates

Born around 460 B.C. in Kos, Ancient Greece, Hippocrates is considered by many as The Father of Western Medicine. Since Hippocrates, it has become customary for new doctors to take and abide by the Hippocratic Oath. Much of the teachings attributed to Hippocrates can be read in the text Hippocratic Corpus. Within this text, one can read thoughts on diseases, plagues, treatments and his view on mental illness. Very central to his thoughts on medicine was his concept of the four humors and maintaining their balance.

Hippocrates died around 370 B.C. in Larissa, Ancient Greece.

1. What are the four humors according to Hippocrates?
2. What properties of these humors may lead to illness?
3. How might we be able to relate the idea of the four humors to Empedocles' concept of the four classical elements?
4. What is Hippocrates view on mental health, as described in his chapter titled: The Sacred Disease?
5. Describe what is meant by internal balance and what must be typically balanced?

-O. James

© Orin James 2020

Plato's Timaeus

Plato was born ca. 427 B.C.E and died ca. 347 B.C.E. One can never exaggerate Plato's influence on Western philosophy. All discourses ranging from the humanities to the natural sciences, from politics to warfare arguably stem from the thoughts of Plato. With a focus on the dialectic to reach the truth, Plato uses the dialogues of his lionized instructor, Socrates (possibly not the historical Socrates) to articulate strong argumentative views.

In Timaeus Plato focuses on a wide range of topics, including, the nature of the world, its creation and its soul therein. Of interest to us will be what is discussed towards the end of the piece, in which we revisit the concept of the four elements, the four humors and views on anatomy and physiology along with the soul.

1. Describe Plato's thoughts on anatomy and physiology, especially the senses.
2. What are the three types of illnesses one can experience according to Plato?
3. Describe the basic pathology of each illness type.
4. How is mental illness defined in this text?

-O. James

© Orin James 2020

Plato's Phaedrus

In Phaedrus , Plato addresses several issues, to which the idea of genuine true wisdom is the focus. Some of these issues include love, poetry, the soul and the use of rhetoric. As the dialogue between Phaedrus and Socrates plays out, one finds that what is important, is getting to the spiritual truth and this is no easy task as the truth resides in authentic living wisdom that exists in philosophy.

1. Explain Lysias' speech in which he suggests the non-lover is better than the lover.
2. What is Socrates' problem with this speech and how does he alter it?
3. Explain Socrates' suggestion that love is a form of madness?
4. Explain the concept of the soul.
5. The metaphor of the charioteer and the two horses is one of Plato's best known metaphors. provide an idea of how it is to be interpreted.
6. Describe the realm of true being.
7. How does Socrates' feel about rhetoric as described in Phaedrus?

-O. James

© Orin James 2020

Sophocles' Ajax and Ovid's Echo & Narcissus

Sophocles was born in Colonus near Athens around 496 B.C. He is considered one of the great Greek tragic dramatists. During his lifetime, he wrote over 120 plays, surpassing his contemporaries Aeschylus and Euripides. In his play Ajax, Sophocles puts on display madness as inflicted by the Goddess Athena on a mortal. This play highlights the classical belief that madness is imposed by the Gods and can only be remedied by the divine.

Sophocles died in 406 B.C. in Athens at the age of ninety.

Publius Ovidius Naso, also known as Ovid was born in 43 BC at Sulmo in central Italy. Ovids' collection of mythological tales, Metamorphoses, often links the idea of transformation as a result of love or lust. The resulting transformation can often be characterized as tragic, as is the case in Echo & Narcissus. Through, once again, the intervention of a deity, we see uncontrollable madness inflicted upon a mortal. Tales like this one has undoubtedly had a lasting impact on our understanding of madness and contributed significantly to twentieth century thinking on psychology as evidenced by Sigmmund Freud's essay On Narcissism.

Ovid died 17 or 18 A.D. in exile

As you answer these questions, cite specific examples from the text to support your answer.

1. Who inflict's madness on Ajax and why?
2. How is Ajax's madness resolved?
3. Who appears to work as an intermediary between the deities and the mortals in Ajax?
4. How is madness inflicted on Narcissus?
5. Describe Narcissus' type of madness.
6. How does madness in Both Ajax and Echo & Narcissus relate to our discussion of Empedocles?

-O. James

© Orin James 2020

Medicine in Medieval Europe and Arab World

The Medieval times proved to be a time when Western medicine was not only influenced by Christianity, but also by Islam. As we explore the development of medicine during the Medieval times, I would like you to research the following names with their respective contributions to medicine:

1. Macrobius (Cicero's Dream of Scipio and Macrobius' Commentary)
2. Boethius The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius
3. Isidore of Seville
4. Al - Kindi
5. Ibn Sina (Avicenna)
6. Trotula of Salerno
7. Hildegard of Bingen (Selected Writings)
8. Ḥasan Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)
9. Averroes

-O. James

© Orin James 2020

The Black Death Plague

The Black Death Pandemic is recorded as the deadliest in human history. It is estimated that well over 100 million people might have died from the Black Death world wide, while diminishing Europe's population by 30%-60% during the 14th century. The onset of this pandemic would have a continual impact on health care practices for centuries to come.

1. Detail some of the new medical practices that were set in place during the onset of the Black Death pandemic.
2. Detail the modifications/implementations of medical training in the universities throughout Europe during the Middle Ages.
3. Detail how all institutions pertaining to medicine worked together during Medieval times, especially during the Black Death pandemic. Be sure to include a discussion on new legal practices.
4. Explain how Christianity viewed medicine during the Medieval times. Be sure to include a discussion on the concept of charity.

-O. James

© Orin James 2020

Asylums and Early Mental Health Treatments

Bedlam, one of Europe's earliest mental hospitals was established as early as the 13th century in London. Like many of the mental institutions that came after, it illicits a horrific image of the type of care and treatment the clients would receive. In the early 19th century we witness the introduction of widespread institutionalized provisions to aid and study mental illnesses. The inhumane strategies employed by these institutions have since proven ineffective and fortunately removed. In this section, we explore the asylum and its various practices.

1. Where and when were some of the first mental hospitals built in America?
2. Research the practice of trephination.
3. Research the practice of using the swinging chair.
4. Research the practice of lobotomy.
5. Research the use of hydrotherapy.
6. Research the use of blood letting.
7. Research the use gynaecological surgery.
8. Research the use of isolation via the crib/steam boxes

-O. James

© Orin James 2020

Using The Library As Resource

The University Library System offers quite an array of sources to explore the history of care within the United States. Recently, the University Library Systems Archives and Special Collections has provided the public access to the Guide to the Western Pennsylvania Hospital and Dixmont Hospital Records, 1848-1918.

The abstract of this collection, states: "The Western Pennsylvania Hospital was founded in 1848 with a mission to care for the poor who were ill and the insane of the Pittsburgh area. The hospital created a Department of the Insane, which was later relocated to Kilbuck Township and became known as Dixmont Hospital, while the main medical facility remained in the city of Pittsburgh. The records found here consist primarily of annual reports of these two institutions that shared a common board of managers for many decades but later became independent from each other. Digital reproductions of the reports in this collection are available online."

The entire collection is divided into a four-part series, Series I. Annual Reports of the Managers of the Western Pennsylvania Hospital Series II. Annual Reports of the Managers of the Western Pennsylvania Hospital (includes a report for the Insane Department/Dixmont) Series III. Annual Reports of the Managers of the Dixmont Hospital for the Insane,1869, 1906, 1908, 1910-1912, 1915-1918 Series IV. Assorted Records

I would like for you to simply begin exploring these records to gain insight into what measures were initially taken to develop a new hospital, before delving deeper.

1. Click on the above link to access site documents.
2. In Table of Contents, click on Series I. Annual Reports of the Managers of the Western Pennsylvania Hospital.
3. After being brought to the Series I collection, click the Online link beneath "Annual Report of the Managers of the Western Pennsylvania Hospital, 1848.
4. Click on the report, read this report and describe who were the key players in the construction/implementation of a new hospital.

-O. James

© Orin James 2020

Early 20th Century Approaches to Mental Health

Mid to late 20th century saw the beginnings of new approaches to understanding mental disorders. Ideas focusing on the importance of the individual and society began to emerge. One of the more dominant approaches was introduced by Sigmund Freud. Here the concept of the id, ego, superego would go on to describe why an individual may experience inbalance in mental health. Freud describes stages in which the pysche develops and defense mechanisms that may be in place to counter any attempts to change an individual's personality.

1. Describe how individuals enter the mental healthcare system. Be sure to include a discussion of the various centers involved.
2. Describe the key individuals on the mental healthcare team.
3. In discussing the approaches in the earlier 20th century, start with a summary of psychoanalysis:

  How many regions comprise the mind according to Freud? What are they?

  What are the stages of personality development according to Freud?

  What are some defense mechanisms in place?

-O. James

© Orin James 2020

Applying Theories via Fairy Tales

Now that we have been introduced to early 20th century thoughts on mental health, specifically Freud's psychoanalysis, we can try to apply them. Read the following tales and see if you can identify instances where Freud's ideas on defense mechanisms can be applied: Rumpelstiltskin and The Girl without Hands

1. Simply try to apply where some of Freud's defense mechanisms can be applied in the two stories above.

-O. James

© Orin James 2020

Behavioral Theories

As the 20th century progressed, so did new ideas on psychology. Theories that incorporated personal and environmental interactions came to the forefront. Key figures like Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson and several others came to dominate personal development theories, while behavioral theories were championed by the likes of Ivan Pavlov, Abraham Maslow among others.

1. Explain Ivan Pavlov's dog experiment, what was its contribution to behavioral theories. What were B.F. Skinner's and Abraham Maslow's contribution to our understanding of behavioral psychology.

-O. James

© Orin James 2020

-O. James

© Orin James 2020